艾蒂安-路易·马吕斯Étienne-Louis Malus

艾蒂安-路易·马吕斯的父亲是马吕斯 de Mitry，曾任法国财政官。马吕斯 马吕斯最初在家接受教育，学习文学和数学。随后他进入位于梅济耶尔的工程学校École Royale de Genie。在那里，加斯帕尔·蒙日教他，并意识到马吕斯具有特殊的数学才能。1793年，马吕斯因政治原因被开除，离开了学校。

离开梅济耶尔后，马吕斯参军并被派往敦刻尔克。在那里他的才能受到注意，被作为学生送往École Polytechnique。在这里，约瑟夫·傅里叶教他，他也许是约瑟夫·傅里叶所有学生中最有才华的。他终生以考官身份与École Polytechnique保持联系。

在École Polytechnique学习期间，马吕斯开始进行原创研究，撰写关于光通过不同折射率材料的路径的论文。

从巴黎综合理工学院毕业后，马吕斯重新加入军队，这次参加了1797年莱茵河上的战役。作为一名工程兵，马吕斯于1798年奉命随拿破仑远征埃及。这并不太令他高兴，因为接到命令时他正驻扎在吉森镇，作为占领军的一部分，而且他即将与吉森大学校长的女儿结婚。

在开罗期间，拿破仑的舰队在阿布基尔湾被摧毁，马吕斯写道，见[3]，

从那时起我们意识到我们与欧洲的所有联系都中断了。我们开始失去再次见到祖国的希望。

在拿破仑的鼓动下，当他们在开罗时，开罗研究院成立了，有12名数学成员。除了马吕斯之外，这些人还包括加斯帕尔·蒙日、约瑟夫·傅里叶和拿破仑·波拿巴本人。1801年返回后，马吕斯在安特卫普、斯特拉斯堡和巴黎担任职务。

他的数学工作几乎完全涉及光的研究。这使他研究称为射线系统的几何系统，与尤里乌斯·普吕克的线丛密切相关。他进行实验以验证克里斯蒂安·惠更斯的光理论，并以分析形式重写了该理论。他关于反射产生光的偏振的发现于1809年发表，他关于晶体中光的双折射理论于1810年发表。

1811年，马吕斯与约瑟夫·拉格朗日、阿德里安-马里·勒让德、皮埃尔·西蒙·拉普拉斯和Haüy一起在委员会任职，决定将奖项授予关于固体中热传播的最佳著作。他们将奖项授予了约瑟夫·傅里叶。

马吕斯因其工作获得许多荣誉，特别是他于1810年因关于双折射的论文而获得Académie des Sciences的奖项。同年，他当选为Académie des Sciences，次年，尽管英法之间处于战争状态，马吕斯被授予伦敦皇家学会的伦福德奖章。

Étienne Louis Malus's father was Louis Malus de Mitry and was Treasurer of France. Étienne Louis was first educated at home where he was instructed in literature and mathematics. He then attended the engineering school, École Royale de Genie, at Mézières. There he was taught by Monge who realised Malus had special mathematical talents. In 1793 Malus left the school, having been dismissed for political reasons.

On leaving Mézières, Malus joined the army and was posted to Dunkerque. There his abilities were noticed and he was sent to the École Polytechnique as a pupil. Here he was taught by Fourier, and he was perhaps the most able of all of Fourier's pupils. He was to remain associated with École Polytechnique as an examiner all his life.

While studying at the École Polytechnique Malus began to undertake original research, writing papers on the path of light through materials of differing refractive indices.

After graduating from the École Polytechnique Malus rejoined the army, this time taking part in campaigns on the Rhine in 1797. As an army engineer Malus was ordered to accompany Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798. This did not greatly please him since at the time that he received the order he was stationed in the town of Giessen, as part of the occupying force, and he was about to marry the daughter of the Chancellor of the University of Giessen.

While in Cairo, Napoleon's fleet was destroyed in Aboukir Bay and Malus wrote, see [3],

From then on we realised that all our communications with Europe were broken. We began to lose hope of ever seeing our native land again.

At Napoleon's instigation, while they were in Cairo, the Cairo Institute was set up having 12 mathematical members. As well as Malus these included Monge, Fourier and Napoleon Bonaparte himself. After returning in 1801 Malus held posts in Antwerp, Strasbourg, and Paris.

His mathematical work was almost entirely concerned with the study of light. This involved him in studying geometrical systems called ray systems, closely connected to Plücker's line complexes. He conducted experiments to verify Huygens' theories of light and rewrote the theory in analytical form. His discovery of the polarisation of light by reflection was published in 1809 and his theory of double refraction of light in crystals in 1810.

In 1811 Malus served, along with Lagrange, Legendre, Laplace and Haüy, on the committee to decide on who to award the prize to for the best work on the propagation of heat in solid bodies. They awarded the prize to Fourier.

Malus received many honours for his work, in particular he was awarded a prize from the Académie des Sciences in 1810 for his memoir on double refraction. In the same year he was elected to the Académie des Sciences and the following year, despite the war between England and France, Malus was awarded the Rumford medal of the Royal Society of London.