安托尼·阿尔诺Antoine Arnauld

安托尼·阿尔诺，有时被称为大阿尔诺，是老阿尔诺（1560-1619）与Catherine Marie de Druy之子。老阿尔诺及其妻子是一个法国小贵族家族的创立者，该家族后来成为法国主要的詹森派家族。

詹森派是Cornelist Otto Jansen（1585-1638）的追随者，他领导了一场以他名字命名的罗马天主教改革运动。Jansen在Augustinus（1640）中提出了他的观点，其依据是圣奥古斯丁的教导，尤其是圣奥古斯丁反对Pelagius的论证。Pelagius曾主张人可以通过自己的行为获得救赎，但Jansen主张人不能通过自己的行为获得救赎，因为谁将被基督引向永生——即少数被拣选者——以及谁注定被罚入地狱——即大多数人——都是预先注定的。

老阿尔诺是一位极受尊敬的巴黎律师，他与妻子Catherine Marie de Druy育有二十个孩子，其中十个活到成年。他们的长子是Robert，生于1588年，而他们最小的孩子是阿尔诺，即本传记的主人公。当路易·安托万于1612年出生时，他的长兄Robert已24岁。事实上，老阿尔诺去世时，他的儿子安托万年仅七岁。他于1594年为巴黎大学辩护、反对耶稣会士而声名鹊起。他在诉讼中的辩护如此成功，以至于他的演说被称为“Arnauld家族的原罪”，并被耶稣会士视为他们与阿尔诺家族斗争的起点，该家族后来成为詹森派。本传记的主人公小阿尔诺将继续他父亲反对耶稣会士的斗争。

阿尔诺家族本已反对耶稣会士，后因Jean Duvergier de Hauranne的影响而成为詹森派。他曾与Jansen一同学习，并在1620年成为Saint-Cyran修道院院长之前成为Jansen观点的坚定支持者。此后被称为Saint-Cyran的他，在成为修道院院长的那一年结识了Robert Arnauld，即安托万的长兄。通过Saint-Cyran的影响，阿尔诺十个孩子中的九个以及他们的许多子女都成为坚定的詹森派。Saint-Cyran和阿尔诺家族还强烈反对黎塞留枢机主教的观点，Saint-Cyran从1638年起被监禁，直到1642年黎塞留去世。

阿尔诺，我们传记的主人公，先后在卡尔维学院和索邦的利雪学院学习。他于1635年获得学士学位，1641年获得神学博士学位，同年被任命为神职人员。出狱后，他与圣西朗建立了密切联系，并于1643年进入索邦。阿尔诺在圣西朗的精神指导下，于1643年撰写了On Frequent Communion，同年又写了Moral Theology of the Jesuits。前者支持詹森派关于圣餐的观点，后者则是对耶稣会的攻击。支持詹森已经变得危险，因为教皇乌尔班八世已于1642年下令天主教徒不得阅读詹森的Augustinus。1655年，阿尔诺在两本小册子中支持詹森派，再次处于危险境地，因为两年前教皇英诺森十世已谴责了Augustinus中的五个命题。

阿尔诺自称是圣奥古斯丁的追随者，这当然并非不合理，因为詹森的信仰正是基于圣奥古斯丁的信仰。然而，耶稣会士称阿尔诺为詹森主义者，1656年，在激烈的神学争论之后，他因詹森主义观点被逐出索邦。他曾在皇港修道院住过一段时间，但在被逐出索邦前后也曾多次躲藏。我们应当说明，皇港修道院是凡尔赛以南的一座詹森派修道院。建筑年久失修，修女们于1626年迁往巴黎，在那里建立了另一座修道院，称为巴黎皇港修道院。阿尔诺的姐妹之一雅克琳-玛丽-昂热利克阿尔诺，在团体迁往巴黎时是皇港修道院的院长，她继续担任巴黎皇港修道院的院长。阿尔诺的母亲于1629年加入巴黎皇港修道院，她的另一个女儿让娜-卡特琳-阿涅丝阿尔诺曾两次担任院长。1638年，皇港修道院的建筑再次被索利泰尔派占据，由圣西朗提供精神指导。索利泰尔派是詹森主义者，其中包括阿尔诺家族的几名成员。阿尔诺的长兄Robert Arnauld于1644年进入皇港修道院。

其他重要人物也皈依了詹森派。布莱兹·帕斯卡于1644年结识詹森派，并于1655年1月进入皇港修道院。布莱兹·帕斯卡在1656年和1657年间撰写了一系列18封信，现称为Les Provinciales，为阿尔诺辩护。在这些信中，布莱兹·帕斯卡攻击了耶稣会的道德教义，他认为这是他们与皇港修道院和阿尔诺争论中的弱点。这些信还支持了阿尔诺在1643年On Frequent Communion中表达的观点，在布莱兹·帕斯卡的支持下，这些思想最终确实被接受。然而，詹森派在1661年至1669年间遭到迫害，在此期间阿尔诺领导了对迫害者的抵抗。亚历山大七世于1655年成为教皇，他命令法国主教让所有神父、修士和修女签署一份谴责詹森的信仰声明。1665年，巴黎皇港修道院的修女拒绝签署，被送往皇港修道院。

事实上，尽管布莱兹·帕斯卡于1662年去世，但他对阿尔诺的影响清楚地体现在后者在领导抵抗对詹森派攻击期间所创作的重要著作中。他于1660年出版了Port-Royal Grammar，该书深受勒内·笛卡儿的Regulae影响。在Port-Royal Grammar中，阿尔诺论证说心理过程和语法实际上是同一回事。由于心理过程为全人类所共有，他主张一种普遍语法。现代语言学理论家认为这部著作是他们学科现代方法的开端。阿尔诺的下一部著作是Port-Royal Logic，这是另一部极为重要的书。它也深受勒内·笛卡儿的Regulae影响，并且还提供了关于帕斯卡Méthode的第一手叙述。这部著作提出了一种观念理论，该理论在哲学课程中一直重要到相对晚近的时期。1667年，阿尔诺出版了New Elements of Geometry。这部著作基于欧几里得的Elements，旨在提供一种教授几何学的新方法，而非新的几何定理。Nathan在[1]中写道：-

作为数学，它的特点是精通当代文献，以及清晰而新颖的阐述……如果阿尔诺的教育关切未得到充分赏识，那可能是因为人们未能充分理解，在现代科学的习惯和‘方法’中，恰当意义上的教育关切所起的作用……

反对阿尔诺和詹森派的不仅是教皇。路易十四视他们为其王国统一的威胁，也曾试图消灭他们。然而，1669年1月，教皇克雷芒九世达成了一项协议，称为克雷芒九世和约，暂停了对詹森派的迫害，阿尔诺获得了十年的相对和平。在此期间，路易十四与教皇之间出现了分歧，这意味着他们的注意力从詹森派转移开，路易十四在阿尔诺身上看到了一个天主教盟友，后者将其著作转向攻击加尔文派而非耶稣会士。正是在这一时期，阿尔诺也获得了教皇克雷芒十一世的青睐，后者尤其满意他关于罗马天主教与新教教会之间争议领域的著作。当詹森派问题再次出现时，克雷芒十一世似乎即将任命阿尔诺为枢机主教。

路易十四与教皇关系的修复，使他们得以再次将注意力转向冉森派问题，而路易十四希望看到一个统一的法国，于是开始施压要求清除他们。对波尔罗亚尔修道院的再次迫害，导致阿尔诺在1679年自我流放。他先去了荷兰，然后在1682年定居布鲁塞尔，在那里度过了他生命的最后12年。

他晚年几乎所有的著作都是他与尼古拉斯‧马勒伯朗士分歧的结果。特别是他抨击了尼古拉斯‧马勒伯朗士的三卷本论著De la recherche de la vérité Ⓣ（《真理的探索》）（1674-75）。阿尔诺的批评导致尼古拉斯‧马勒伯朗士在1680年进一步出版了一部著作，但这部作品Traité de la nature et de la grâce不为天主教会所喜，十年后被教会查禁。

阿尔诺一生中与许多顶尖数学家和科学家通信，并产生了相当大的影响。特别是在其职业生涯早期，他与勒内·笛卡儿有大量通信，后来则与哥特弗里德·威廉·莱布尼茨通信甚多。Nathan在[1]中写道，阿尔诺的：-

……与勒内·笛卡儿、哥特弗里德·威廉·莱布尼茨等人的大量通信见证了他自身的影响力和敏锐。

Antoine Arnauld, sometimes called The Great Arnauld, was the son of Antoine Arnauld senior (1560-1619) and Catherine Marie de Druy. Antoine Arnauld senior and his wife were the founders of a French family of the lesser nobility who became the leading Jansenist family of France.

Jansenists were followers of Cornelist Otto Jansen (1585-1638) who led a Roman Catholic reform movement named after him. Jansen put forward his views in Augustinus (1640) which he based on the teachings of St Augustine, particularly St Augustine's arguments against Pelagius. Pelagius had argued that men can achieve salvation through their actions but Jansen argued that men cannot achieve salvation through their actions since it is predestined who Christ will lead to eternal life, the select few, and who are doomed to damnation, the multitude.

Antoine Arnauld senior was a highly respected Parisian lawyer who with his wife Catherine Marie de Druy had twenty children, ten of whom survived to adulthood. Their oldest child was Robert, born in 1588, while their youngest was Antoine Arnauld, the subject of this biography. When Antoine was born in 1612 his eldest brother Robert was 24 years old. In fact Antoine Arnauld senior died when his son Antoine was only seven years old. He had become famous when he defended the University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. He was so successful in pleading the case that his speech was known as "the original sin of the Arnaulds" and considered by the Jesuits as the beginning of their battle against the Arnauld family who would later become Jansenists. Antoine Arnauld junior, the subject of this biography, would carry on his father's battle against the Jesuits.

The Arnauld family, already opposed to the Jesuits, became Jansenists through the influence of Jean Duvergier de Hauranne. He had studied with Jansen and became a strong supporter of Jansen's views before becoming abbot of Saint-Cyran in 1620. Saint-Cyran, as he was known after this, got to know Robert Arnauld, Antoine's eldest brother, in the year he became abbot. Through the influence of Saint-Cyran nine of the ten Arnauld children, and many of their children, became staunch Jansenists. Saint-Cyran and the Arnauld family also strongly opposed the views of Cardinal Richelieu and Saint-Cyran was imprisoned from 1638 until Richelieu's death in 1642.

Antoine Arnauld, the subject of our biography, studied at the Collège Calvi, then at the Collège Lisieux at the Sorbonne. He received a bachelor's degree in 1635 and a doctorate in theology in 1641, the same year in which he was ordained. He became closely associated with Saint-Cyran after his release from prison and he entered the Sorbonne in 1643. Arnauld, with spiritual advice from Saint-Cyran, wrote On Frequent Communion in 1643 and, in the same year, Moral Theology of the Jesuits. The first of these supported the Jansenists views on Holy Communion, while the second was an attack on the Jesuits. Supporting Jansen was already becoming dangerous since Pope Urban VIII had ordered Catholics not to read Jansen's Augustinus in 1642. In 1655 Arnauld supported the Jansenists in two pamphlets and again he was on dangerous ground since Pope Innocent X had condemned five propositions in the Augustinus two years earlier.

Arnauld called himself a follower of St Augustine, which of course was not unreasonable since Jansen had based his beliefs on those of St Augustine. However, the Jesuits called Arnauld a Jansenist and in 1656 after heated theological arguments he was expelled from the Sorbonne for his Jansenist views. He spent some time living in the monastery Port-Royal des Champs but also spent periods in hiding both before and after his expulsion from the Sorbonne. We should explain that Port-Royal des Champs was a Jansenists monastery south of Versailles. The buildings fell into disrepair and the nuns moved to Paris in 1626 where they set up a another monastery called Port-Royal de Paris. Jacqueline-Marie-Angélique Arnauld, one of Antoine Arnauld's sisters, was the abbess at Port-Royal des Champs when the community moved to Paris and she continued to be abbess at Port-Royal de Paris. Arnauld's mother joined Port-Royal de Paris in 1629 where another of her daughters Jeanne-Catherine-Agnès Arnauld was twice abbess. In 1638 the building of Port-Royal des Champs was occupied again by the Solitaires under the spiritual guidance of Saint-Cyran. The Solitaires were Jansenists and included several members of the Arnauld family. Robert Arnauld, Antoine Arnauld's eldest brother, entered Port-Royal des Champs in 1644.

Other important people were also converts to the Jansenists. Pascal became acquainted with the Jansenists in 1644 and entered Port-Royal des Champs in January 1655. Pascal wrote a series of 18 letters now known as Les Provinciales during the years 1656 and 1657 in defence of Arnauld. In these letters Pascal attacked the moral teachings of the Jesuits which he saw as the weak point in their controversy with Port-Royal and Arnauld. The letters also supported the views that Arnauld had expressed in On Frequent Communion in 1643 and, with Pascal's support, these ideas would indeed eventually became accepted. The Jansenists, however, were persecuted between 1661 and 1669 and during this time Arnauld led the resistance to their persecutors. Alexander VII had become Pope in 1655 and he ordered bishops of France to make all of the priests, monks, and nuns sign a formulary condemning Jansen. When, in 1665, the nuns at Port-Royal de Paris refused to sign they were sent to Port-Royal des Champs.

In fact although Pascal died in 1662, his influence on Arnauld was clearly seen in the important works which he produced through the period that he led the resistance to the attacks on the Jansenists. He published Port-Royal Grammar in 1660 which was strongly influenced by Descartes' Regulae. In Port-Royal Grammar Arnauld argued that mental processes and grammar are virtually the same thing. Since mental processes are carried out by all human beings, he argued for a universal grammar. Modern linguistic theorists consider this work as the beginnings of the modern approach their subject. Arnauld's next work was Port-Royal Logic which was another book of major importance. It was also strongly influenced by Descartes' Regulae and also gave a first hand account of Pascal's Méthode. This work presented a theory of ideas which remained important in philosophy courses until comparatively recent times. In 1667 Arnauld published New Elements of Geometry. This work was based on Euclid's Elements and was intended to give a new approach to teaching geometry rather than new geometrical theorems. Nathan writes in [1]:-

As mathematics, it is characterised by the mastery of the contemporary literature and by its clear and fresh exposition ... If Arnauld's pedagogical concerns are insufficiently appreciated, it may be because the role of what are properly pedagogical concerns in the habits and 'methods' of modern science is insufficiently understood ...

It was not only the Pope who was opposed to Arnauld and the Jansenists. Louis XIV saw them as a threat to the unity of his kingdom and had also tried to eliminate them. However, in January 1669 Pope Clement IX made an agreement, called the Peace of Clement IX, which suspended persecution of the Jansenists and Arnauld had ten years of relative peace. During this period there was a disagreement between Louis XIV and the Pope which meant that their attention was diverted from the Jansenists and Louis XIV saw a Catholic ally in Arnauld who turned his writings to attacking Calvinists rather than Jesuits. It was a period when Arnauld also found favour with Pope Clement XI who was particularly pleased with his writings on disputed areas between the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches. Clement XI seemed about to make Arnauld a cardinal when the problem of the Jansenists came up again.

It was a result of the mending of relations between Louis XIV and the Pope which let them turn their attention again on the problem of the Jansenists and Louis XIV, wanting to see a united France, began to press for their elimination. Renewed persecution against the Port-Royal monastery led to Arnauld's self-imposed exile in 1679. He went first to The Netherlands, then in 1682 he took up permanent residence in Brussels where he spent the last 12 years of his life.

Almost all his writings in the last part of his life were a consequence of his disagreements with Nicolas Malebranche. In particular he attacked Malebranche's three volume treatise De la recherche de la vérité Ⓣ (1674-75). Arnauld's criticisms led to a further publication by Malebranche in 1680, but this work Traité de la nature et de la grâce was not pleasing to the Catholic Church which banned it ten years later.

Arnauld corresponded with many of the leading mathematicians and scientists throughout his life and exerted quite a considerable influence. In particular early in his career he corresponded at great length with Descartes and then much later with Leibniz. Nathan writes in [1] that Arnauld's:-

... voluminous correspondence with Descartes and Leibniz and others bears witness to his own influence and acumen.