维特鲁威Vitruvius

Marcus 维特鲁威几乎完全是通过他的著名十卷本著作On Architecture而为人所知。甚至他的名字也不确定，只有维特鲁威是确定的。除了从该著作中可以推断出的内容外，关于他的生平所知甚少，尽管他在Pliny the 大阿里斯泰俄斯和Frontinus的著作中被提及。历史学家提出了两个不同的城镇作为他的出生地。我们曾提出Fundi（今Fondi），它大约位于罗马和那不勒斯之间。然而另一个建议是Verona，它位于意大利北部，大致在威尼斯以西。

很明显，他一定出生在一个显赫的罗马家庭。他接受过建筑学训练，并在Caesar的军队中服役于工程兵部队。他随军队广泛旅行，我们知道他曾在高卢服役，例如公元前56年他在Larignum堡垒，公元前48年在马赛。公元前46年他还在北非的Zama，那里是公元前202年Zama战役的遗址，在那场战役中罗马人击败了Hannibal，结束了第二次布匿战争。在维特鲁威的时代，罗马人正在那里建造一座城市。公元前44年Caesar被刺杀后，维特鲁威作为军事工程师加入了Octavian（后来的皇帝Augustus）的军队。到公元前33年，我们知道他参与了输水道的建设。

他最著名（也是唯一已知）的著作是十卷本的On Architecture ，我们知道它是在维特鲁威生命的末期写成的。关于他的杰作，首先要说的是，很难判断今天流传下来的这本书与原著有多接近。很明显，从写作之时到中世纪，这部作品一直被视为建筑师的手册，因此多年来像对待手册一样被改进。第二点必须说的是，对维特鲁威来说，建筑学的范围比我们今天所认为的要广泛得多。例如，水钟、日晷和泵都由维特鲁威描述，这些主题在今天几乎不会被视为建筑学研究的一部分。接下来我们注意到维特鲁威对历史的兴趣——这意味着我们得以了解关于早期著作和科学家的信息，否则这些信息就会丢失。

这部著作献给奥古斯都，他在书开头的献词中感谢了他：-

……因此，与Marcus Aurelius、Publius Minidius和Gnaeus Cornelius一起，我准备好供应和修理弩炮、蝎弩和其他火炮，并因与他们一起的良好服务而获得了奖赏。在您首次将这些授予我之后，您又根据您姐妹的推荐继续续授。由于这一恩惠，我终生无需担心匮乏，并且因此负有义务，我开始为您撰写这部著作，因为我看到您已经建造并且现在正在广泛建造，而且将来也会注意使我们的公共和私人建筑值得与您辉煌的成就一起流传后世。我已经制定了明确的规则，使您通过遵守它们，能够亲自了解现有建筑和将要建造的建筑的质量。

维特鲁威认为建筑师需要学习许多学科：-

让他受过教育，擅长用笔，受过几何学训练，了解许多历史，专注地追随哲学家，懂得音乐，对医学有一定了解，知道法学家的观点，并熟悉天文学和天体理论。

数学对维特鲁威起着重要作用：-

几何学在建筑中大有助益，尤其教我们使用直尺和圆规，借此我们特别能获得为建筑在其场地上制定平面图的敏捷，并正确应用角尺、水准器和铅锤。再借助光学，建筑中的光线可以从天空的固定方位引入。诚然，建筑的造价和测量是靠算术来计算的，但涉及对称性的难题则借助几何学的理论和方法来解决。

让我们简要描述这十卷。第一卷包含献词以及我们已引述的建筑师教育。在给出建筑学基础之后，维特鲁威考察城市和城墙的选址。他讨论街道的走向，特别考虑到风向。第二卷考察建筑的起源，但主要涉及砖、沙、石灰、火山灰、石料和木材等建筑材料。

第三卷讨论了神庙和人体中的对称性，然后讨论了柱子的比例。它给出了建造爱奥尼柱式神庙的规则。第六卷继续讨论神庙，这次是多立克柱式和托斯卡纳柱式的神庙。特别详细地考察了神庙的门和祭坛。第五卷讨论了公共建筑的建造，如广场、巴西利卡、剧场及其柱廊、角力场、浴场和港口。剧场中的和声学与声学读来颇有趣味。第六卷论述罗马式和希腊式的私人住宅。他关注气候、对称性和比例。

第七卷涉及室内装饰，如灰泥工程、湿壁画，以及制作天然和人工颜料所需的材料。第八卷涉及水——如何寻找水、雨水、渡槽、水井和蓄水池。天文学是第九卷的第一个主题，随后是数学工具，如倍平方的方法、构造直角三角形的方法、日晷和水钟的数学原理。最后一卷涉及工程中使用的机械，既用于军事目的，也用于建筑。维特鲁威描述了使用滑轮提升和运输重物的机械，他给出了杠杆原理，并描述了将圆周运动转换为直线运动以及反之的机械。还描述了螺旋提水器、⟦N2⟧的泵、水力风琴、测距仪，以及具有军事应用的机械，如弩炮、蝎式投石机、投石机、攻城器械、龟甲车以及如何防御它们。

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio is known almost exclusively through his famous ten volume work On Architecture. Even his name is in doubt with only Vitruvius being certain. Other than what can be deduced from that work, little is known about his life although he is mentioned in works by Pliny the Elder and Frontinus. Two different towns have been proposed by historians as his birthplace. We have suggested Fundi (now Fondi), which is about midway between Rome and Naples. However the other suggestion is Verona which is in the north of Italy, roughly west of Venice.

It is clear that he must have been born into a prominent Roman family. He trained in architecture and served with the engineering corps in Caesar's army. He travelled widely with the army and we know he served in Gaul, for example he was in the fortress of Larignum in 56 BC and in Marseilles in 48 BC. He was also in Zama in North Africa in 46 BC, the site of the Battle of Zana in 202 BC in which the Romans defeated Hannibal to end the Second Punic War. The Romans were building a city there in Vitruvius's time. After Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, Vitruvius joined the army of Octavian (later the Emperor Augustus), as a military engineer. By 33 BC we know that he was involved in the construction of aqueducts.

His most famous (and only known) work is the ten volumes of On Architecture which we know was written near the end of Vitruvius's life. The first comment to make about his masterpiece is that it is a little difficult to tell how close to the original is the book which has come down to us today. It is clear that the work has been regarded as an architect's manual from the time it was written up to the middle ages, so has been improved over the years as one does with a manual. The second comment must be that, for Vitruvius, architecture had a much wider scope than we would consider today. For example water clocks, sundials and pumps are all described by Vitruvius, topics which would hardly be considered to be part of the study of architecture today. Next we note Vitruvius's interest in history - this means that we are treated to information about earlier works and scientists which would otherwise have been lost.

The work is dedicated to Augustus whom he thanks in a dedication at the beginning of the book:-

... so with Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius, and Gnaeus Cornelius, I was ready to supply and repair ballistae, scorpiones, and other artillery, and I have received rewards for good service with them. After your first bestowal of these upon me, you continued to renew them on the recommendation of your sister. Owing to this favour I need have no fear of want to the end of my life, and being thus laid under obligation I began to write this work for you, because I saw that you have built and are now building extensively, and that in future also you will take care that our public and private buildings shall be worthy to go down to posterity by the side of your splendid achievements. I have drawn up definite rules to enable you, by observing them, to have personal knowledge of the quality both of existing buildings and those which are yet to be constructed.

Vitruvius believes that the architect needs to have studied many disciplines:-

Let him be educated, skilful with the pencil, instructed in geometry, know much history, have followed the philosophers with attention, understand music, have some knowledge of medicine, know the opinions of the jurists, and be acquainted with astronomy and the theory of the heavens.

Mathematics plays an important role for Vitruvius:-

Geometry is of much assistance in architecture, and in particular it teaches us the use of the rule and compasses, by which especially we acquire readiness in making plans for buildings in their grounds, and rightly apply the square, the level, and the plummet. By means of optics, again, the light in buildings can be drawn from fixed quarters of the sky. It is true that it is by arithmetic that the cost of buildings are calculated and measurements are computed, but difficult questions involving symmetry are solved by means of geometrical theories and methods.

Let us briefly describe the ten volumes. The first contains the dedication and the education of an architect from which we have quoted. After giving the fundamentals of architecture, Vitruvius looks at the siting of a city and city walls. He discusses the direction of the streets particularly taking into account the direction of the winds. Volume II looks at the origins of architecture, but is mostly concerned with building materials such as bricks, sand, lime, pozzolan, stone and timber.

Volume III contains a discussion of symmetry in both temples and the human body, then discusses the proportion of columns. It gives the rules for constructing Ionic temples. Volume VI continues to discuss temples, this time Doric and Tuscan temples. In particular temple doors and altars are looked at in detail. Volume V discusses the construction of public buildings such as the forum, the basilica, the theatre and its porticos, the palaestra, the baths and harbours. Harmonics and acoustics of the theatre make interesting reading. Volume VI is on private houses of both Roman and Greek style. He pays attention to climate, symmetry and proportions.

In Volume VII is on interior decoration such as stucco work, fresco painting, and the materials needed to produce natural and artificial colours. Volume VIII concerns water - how to find it, rainwater, aqueducts, wells and cisterns. Astronomy is the first topic of Volume IX, followed by mathematical tools such as a method of doubling a square, a method of constructing a right angled triangle, the mathematical principles of a sundial and of water-clocks. The final volume deals with machines used in engineering, both for military purposes and for buildings. Vitruvius describes machines for lifting and transporting weights using a pulley, he gives the principle of the lever, and describes machines that convert circular to linear motion and vice-versa. Also described are the water-screw, the pump of Ctesibius, the hydraulic organ, the hodometer, and machines with military applications such as catapults, scorpions, balistae, siege engines, tortoises and how to defend against them.