克律西波斯Chrysippus of Soli

克律西波斯有腓尼基血统。他来到雅典，在科学院跟随阿尔克西拉乌斯学习哲学。一段时间后，他离开了科学院，搬到雅典的画廊柱廊学园，在那里他成为季蒂昂的芝诺所创学校的弟子。

当克律西波斯加入Stoa Poikile学院时，在芝诺去世后，阿索斯的克莱安西斯已成为第二任院长。克律西波斯在克莱安西斯门下学习，但也受到柏拉图教导的影响。公元前232年，克莱安西斯去世后，克律西波斯成为Stoa Poikile的第三任院长。他继续担任这一职位直到去世。

从克律西波斯的著作中有证据表明他一生贫穷。当然，他确实说过，哲学家要想致富，可以侍奉国王（或者，如克律西波斯所说，自己成为国王）。然而，显然他没有选择这条获得稳定收入的途径。否则，克律西波斯写道，哲学家必须依靠朋友和教学来维持生活，看来这就是他获得微薄收入的方式。

另一条同样不令人惊讶的信息是，克律西波斯的希腊文写作风格非常糟糕。这似乎是来自克律西波斯的人的特点，这一点至今保留在“solecism”这个表达中。尽管他的希腊文散文笨拙，但他是一位多产作家，据说写了705卷纸莎草纸，如今无一留存。

与基提翁的芝诺一起，克律西波斯被认为是Stoicism的共同创始人。斯多葛主义得名于Stoa Poikile学院，该名称意为“彩绘柱廊”，即学院创始人通常讲课的地方。

克律西波斯是最早将命题逻辑组织为一门智力学科的人之一。他们研究了由连接词连接起来的未分析命题。这使斯多葛学派在数学和科学上取得了重大进展。逻辑术语“析取”肯定源自斯多葛学派，并且被认为起源于克律西波斯。第欧根尼·拉尔修在[3]中列出了克律西波斯的118部逻辑著作，其中七部书占用了15卷纸草，涉及说谎者悖论。

克律西波斯在逻辑领域提出的一个主张是拒绝“不可能者不从可能者推出”。他关于这一点的论证见[8]，该文还更一般地考察了他关于模态逻辑的观点。

在物理学中，克律西波斯区分了“整体”与“全部”或“宇宙”。他论证说，“整体”是世界，而“全部”是外部虚空连同世界。他相信逻辑和物理学对于区分善与恶是必要的。对克律西波斯来说，在能够表述伦理学之前，必须具备物理学知识。对他而言，物理学和逻辑的价值主要就在于此。

伯特兰·罗素在[4]中说：-

克律西波斯……有一套详尽的知识理论，主要是经验性的，基于感知，尽管[他]允许某些被认为是由……人类一致同意而确立的观念和原则。

克律西波斯对数学的贡献之一是他主张“一”是一个数。对我们来说，意识到“一”曾经不被视为一个数可能显得奇怪，但稍加思考就会清楚，确实不需要用一个数来描述单个物体。事实上，“一”被认为是衡量事物的依据。亚里士多德在形而上学中写道（例如见[5]）：-

……度量不是被度量的事物，而是度量或一是数的开端。

克律西波斯说“一”是“多的一”，应被视为一个数，但这并未立即被接受，扬布利科斯写道“多的一”在措辞上是自相矛盾的。

普鲁塔克在Common notions against the Stoics中报告了德谟克利特提出的一个两难，据克律西波斯所述，涉及一个被平行于底面的平面切割的圆锥。克律西波斯反对对该两难的解释，声称它基于数学线具有atomic structure、因而并非无限可分的假设。然而托马斯·利特尔·希思[5]并不像克律西波斯那样相信德谟克利特认为数学线具有原子结构。克律西波斯思想的这一方面在有趣的文章[7]中得到了讨论。

有一句非常古老的话这样评价克律西波斯：——

……唯有他是智者，其余人只是影子。

还有另一种说法（例如见[6]）：——

如果没有克律西波斯，就不会有斯多葛主义

这当然并没有过分夸大他的重要性。

关于克律西波斯之死有若干版本，其中一说他饮用了些烈性葡萄酒，另一说他死于大笑。更多（很可能是虚构的）生平细节可参阅[3]。

Chrysippus was of Phoenician roots. He came to Athens to study philosophy at the Academy with Arcesilaus. After a while he left the Academy and moved to the Stoa Poikile Academy in Athens where he was a pupil at the School founded by Zeno of Citium.

By the time Chrysippus joined the Stoa Poikile Academy, Cleanthes of Assos had become the second head following the death of Zeno. Chrysippus studied under Cleanthes, but he had also been influenced by the teachings of Plato. In 232 BC Chrysippus became the third head of the Stoa Poikile following the death of Cleanthes. He was to continue to hold this position until his own death.

There is evidence from the writings of Chrysippus that he was poor throughout his life. Certainly he stated that for a philosopher to become wealthy he might serve a king (or even, said Chrysippus, become a king himself). It is clear however that he did not adopt this route to a steady income. Otherwise, Chrysippus writes, the philosopher must rely on his friends and on teaching in order to live, and it would appear that this is the means by which he made his small income.

Another piece of information, which again is not surprising, is that Chrysippus wrote Greek with very poor style. This seems to have been a characteristic of people from Soli, and this is preserved today in the expression 'solecism'. Despite his Greek prose being awkward, he was a prolific writer who is said to have written 705 rolls of papyri, none of which are remains today.

Together with Zeno of Citium, Chrysippus is considered the cofounder of Stoicism. Stoicism takes its name from the Stoa Poikile Academy which in turn means "Painted Colonnade", the place where the founder of the academy usually lectured.

Chrysippus was one of the first to organise propositional logic as an intellectual discipline. Unanalysed propositions joined by connectives were studied. This allowed the Stoics to make major advances in mathematics and science. The logical term "disjunction" is certainly due to the Stoics and it is thought to have originated with Chrysippus. Diogenes Laertius in [3] lists 118 works on logic by Chrysippus, and of these 118 there are seven books occupying 15 rolls of papyri concerning the Liar Paradox.

One claim which Chrysippus made in the area of logic was to reject that the impossible does not follow from the possible. His arguments regarding this are presented in [8] which also examines more generally his views on modal logic.

In physics Chrysippus made distinctions between "whole" and "all" or "universe". He argued that the "whole" is the world while the "all" is the external void together with the world. He believed that logic and physics are necessary to differentiate between good and evil. For Chrysippus a knowledge of physics is necessary before ethics can be formulated. To him the value of physics and logic is mainly for this purpose.

Russell in [4] says:-

Chrysippus ... had an elaborate theory of knowledge, in the main empirical and based on perception, though [he] allowed certain ideas and principles, which were held to be established by ... the agreement of mankind.

One of the contributions of Chrysippus to mathematics is his claim that 'one' is a number. It may seem strange to us to realise that 'one' was ever not considered as a number but of course a little thought makes it clear that indeed there is no need for a number to describe a single object. In fact 'one' was considered as that by which things are measured. Aristotle, in Metaphysics writes (see for example [5]):-

... a measure is not the things measured, but the measure or the One is the beginning of number.

Chrysippus said 'one' was 'multitude one' and should be regarded as a number but this was not immediately accepted, Iamblichus writing that 'multitude one' was a contradiction in terms.

Plutarch in Common notions against the Stoics reports on a dilemma proposed by Democritus as reported by Chrysippus about a cone cut by a plane parallel to its base. Chrysippus argues against the interpretation of the dilemma claiming that it is based on the assumption that mathematical lines have an atomic structure and are not therefore infinitely divisible. However Heath [5] does not believe, as Chrysippus does, that Democritus regards mathematical lines as having an atomic structure. This aspect of Chrysippus's ideas are discussed in the interesting article [7].

There is a very old saying says of Chrysippus, that:-

... he alone is the sage, the others only act as shadows.

There is another saying (see for example [6]):-

If there had been no Chrysippus, there would have been no Stoicism

which certainly does not greatly overstate his importance.

There are a number of versions of how Chrysippus died, one of which says he drank some over proof wine while another says that he died of laughter. Consult [3] for more (probably fictitious) details of his life.